You like milk with flavor straws, magic
straws, flavors straws. Well here I am.
The thing with almost human brain, Elektro the robot.
You asked for it. I am Elektro,
mightiest of all robots.
Artificial intelligence has been a topic
of growing prominence in the media and
mainstream culture since 2015, as well
as in the investment world, with
companies that even mention the word in
their business model, gaining massive
amounts of funding. While to many, the
hype around AI may appear sudden, the
concepts of modern artificial
intelligence have been around for over a
century and extending further, the
concept of artificial intelligence and
artificial beings have been in the minds
of humans for thousands of years. To
better understand and appreciate this
technology and those who brought it to
us as well as to gain insight into where it
will take us: sit back, relax and join me
in an exploration on the history of
artificial intelligence.
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Since at least the times of Ancient
Greece, mechanical men and artificial
beings have been dreamt about, such as a
Greek myths of Hephaestus, the Greek god of
smithing, and his designs of mechanical
men and other autonomous machines.
Progressing forward toward the Middle Ages
and away from fables and myths of
ancient times, realistic humanoid
automatons and other self-operating
machines were built by craftsmen from
various civilizations. Some of the more
prominently known are of Ismail Al-
Jazari of the Turkish Artuqid Dynasty
in 1206 and Leonardo Da Vinci in the
1500s. Al-Jazari designed what is
believed to be the first programmable
humanoid robots, a boat carrying 4
mechanical musicians, powered by the flow
of water and Da Vinci of his various
mechanical inventions, built a knight
automaton that could wave its arm and 49 00:01:58,300 --> 00:02:02,350 move its mouth. Moving forward to the
1600s, brilliant philosophers and
mathematicians, Thomas Hobbes, Gottfried
Leibniz and Rene Descartes believed in
the concept that all rational thought
could be made as symmetric as algebra or
geometry. This concept was originally
birthed by Aristotle in the 4th
century, referred to as syllogistic logic,
where a conclusion is drawn based on
2 or more propositions. As Thomas Hobbes
stated in his book, Leviathan,
"When a man [reasons], he does nothing else
but conceive a sum total, from addition
of parcels; or conceive a remainder, from
subtraction of one sum from another...
these operations are not incident to
numbers only, but to all manner of things
that can be added together and taken one
out of another...the logicians teach the
same in consequence of words;
adding together two [words] to make an
affirmation, and two affirmations to make
a syllogism; and many syllogisms to make
a demonstration. Leibniz took Hobbes
philosophies a step further and laid the
foundations for the 'language' machines
communicate in today, binary. His
motivation for doing so was because he
realized that mathematical computing
processes could be done much easier in a
number encoding with less digits.
Descartes examined the concept of, 'thinking
machines', and even proposed a test to
determine intelligence, in his 1637
book, Discourse on the Method, where
Descartes famously stated the line, "I
think therefore I am",
he also stated in that book, "If there
were machines that bore a resemblance to
our bodies and imitated our actions as
closely as possible...we should still have
two very certain means of recognizing
that they [are] not real humans.
The first is that...such a machine should
produce arrangements of words as to
give an appropriately meaningful answer
to whatever is said in its presence.
Secondly, even though some machines might
do things as well as we do them, or
perhaps even better,
they would inevitably fail in others,
which would reveal that they are not
acting from understanding. Also, in the
1600s and throughout the Middle Ages, on
the other side of the spectrum,
entertainment and spirituality, growing
from Greek myth, the concept of
artificial beings continued to be
explored, such as in fields like ancient
chemistry, in other words, alchemy, which
was more of a pseudoscience, with the goal
to transform the pure into the rare,
transforming mind into matter. Countless
stories during this time-period also
portray this concept, such as the Golem
in Jewish folklore, which is a being
created from inanimate matter.
Progressing forward, we see this trope
again in stories such as Frankenstein,
first published in 1818, with a being
reanimated from inanimate flesh.
After the height of the first Industrial
Revolution in the mid-1800s, where
machines began replacing human muscle
and the beginnings of the field of
modern computing, we see these stories
take a turn towards modern sci-fi
elements and portraying technology as
evolving into human form. Take for
example this clip from the silent film,
Metropolis.
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The field of modern computing was
officially born with Charles Babbage's
mechanical analytical engine in the
1840s. Although it was never built due to
a variety of reasons, rebuilding of his
designs in present day show that they
would have worked. This then means that
Ada Lovelace was the worlds first
programmer, with her algorithm on
calculating Bernoulli numbers on
Babbage's machine. Early computers had to
be hardcoded to solve problems and
Lovelace being the first programmer had
serious doubts on the feasibility of
artificial intelligence, nearly 200 years
after Descartes she shared similar
sentiments stating about the analytical
engine, "It has no pretentions whatsoever
to originate anything. It can do whatever
we know how to order it to perform. It
can follow analysis; but it has no power
of anticipating any analytical relations
or truths". This is referred to as
Lovelace's Objection. As a side note, be
sure to check my video on the, History of
Computing, if you want more background
knowledge on the evolution of the field
of computing. Back on topic,
a decade after Babbage's analytical
engine, in the 1850s, George Boole, an
English mathematician and philosopher,
revolutionized the field of computing
and laid the first true steps for a
computing based artificial intelligence.
Boole like those before him also believed
human thinking could be mastered by laws
described by the means of mathematics. He
took the principles of syllogistic
reasoning from Aristotle and expanded
much deeper on the relationship between
logic and math that Leibniz had set,
thus resulting in the birth of Boolean
logic, essentially replacing
multiplication with AND, and, addition
with OR, with the output being either
TRUE or FALSE. This abstraction of logic
by Boole was the first step in giving
computers reasoning ability, this because
as the field of computing evolved, a number
of researchers noticed that binary
numbers, 1 and 0, in conjunction with
Boolean logic, TRUE and FALSE, could be
used to analyze electrical switching
circuits. This is referred to as
combinational logic, in other words,
logic 'gates' that output a resultant
based on their inputs. There are a
variety of different types of gates: AND,
OR, XOR, NOT, etc, and as the connections
between different gates became more
complex, led to the design of electronic
computers.
Combinational logic is the first layer
in automaton theory, in other words, the
study of abstract and self-operating
machines. As computing evolved, additional
layers began to be established, with the
next one being, finite state machines.
These machines essentially blackbox
sets of logic gates, and use logic
between the black-boxes to trigger more
complex events. For an illustrative
example of a type of state machine, think
of an oven that has three states: off,
heating and idle. In state diagrams we
can illustrate state transitions and the
values that will trigger them, for
example, the on and off button presses of
the oven, the oven being too hot, the oven
being too cold, etc. The next layer in
automaton theory is pushdown
automaton, in other words, machines with
memory which was pioneered by many
individuals such as William Eccles and
Frank William Jordan, who invented the
first circuits capable of memory,
flip-flops, and John von Neumann who
abstracted the relationship of memory in
a computing system. Finally, the last
layer of automaton theory and the class
of machines we use today is, Turing
Machines. Before continuing I want to
point out that this was an extremely
simplistic overview of a subset of
automaton theory, and to definitely
research with other sources for a more
in-depth overview. The final layer of
automaton theory was based on a
mathematical model of computation that
Alan Turing proposed in 1936, dubbed the
Universal Turing Machine. Once again like
those before him,
Turing broke down logic into a
mathematical form, in this case,
translating it to machine that reasons
through abstract symbol manipulation,
much like the symbolic reasoning done in
our minds. As stated earlier, early
computing devices were hard-coded to
solve problems,
Turing's belief with his universal
computer was instead of deciding what a
computer should do when you build it,
design a computer in such a way that it
can compute anything that is computable,
so long as it is given the right
instructions. This concept is the basis
of modern computing. At this point in the
1930s, with the field of modern computing
officially born and rapidly evolving, the
concept of artificial beings and
intelligence based on computing
technology began permeating across
mainstream society of that time. The
first popular display of this was
Elektro, the nickname of a humanoid robot
built by the Westinghouse Electric
Corporation and shown at the 1939 New
York World Fair: Ladies
and Gentlemen, I'll be very glad to tell
my story. I am a smart fellow as I have a
very fine brain. Elektro wowed many and
one can say is the basis of how mainstream
society thinks of a computing based
artificial intelligence, as evident by
the various movies, TV shows, books and
other entertainment media portraying the
concept. As a side note, Westinghouse's
Elektro draws many parallels to
modern-day Hanson Robotics Sophia. They
are not truly intelligent but are more
of a way for mainstream society to get a
glimpse of future technology, in other
words, they're imitating intelligence.
Going back to Alan Turing in the 1950s,
he pondered this dilemma of true versus
imitated intelligence in section 1 of
his paper, Computing Machinery and
Intelligence, titled, The Imitation Game.
In this paper he lays the foundations
for what we now refer to as the, Turing
Test, the first serious proposal in the
philosophy of a computing based
artificial intelligence. The Turing Test
essentially states, if a machine acts as
intelligently as a human being then it
is as intelligent as a human being. An
example often thrown around is the online
chatroom, in which if we are talking to
an AI bot but aren't told this until
after, and believed during the
conversation that it was a human, then
the bot passes the Turing Test and is
deemed intelligent. Around the same time
as Turing's proposal, another titan of the
field of computing, the father of the
information age, Claude Shannon, published
the basis of information theory, in his
landmark paper, A Mathematical Theory of
Communication, in 1948. Information theory
is the backbone of all digital systems
today and a very complex topic, in
layman's terms and in relation to
computing, Shannon's theory states, all
information in the entire universe could
be represented in binary. This has
profound implications for artificial
intelligence, meaning we could break down
human logic and more so the human brain
and replicate its processes with
computing technology. This fact was
demonstrated a few years later in 1955
by what is dubbed as the first
artificial intelligence program, called,
Logic Theorist. A program able to prove
38 of the first 52 theorems in Principia
Mathematica, a three-volume work on the
foundations of mathematics. This program
was written by Alan Newell, Herbert Simon
and Cliff Shaw, who like philosophers
and mathematicians
before them also believed human thought
could be broken down, with them stating,
"the mind can be viewed as a device
operating on bits of information
according to formal rules". That being
they realized that a machine that can
manipulate numbers could also manipulate
symbols and that symbol manipulation is
the essence of human thought. As a fun
side note, Herbert Simon stated, 'a system
composed of matter can have the
properties of mind', a throwback to
alchemy of the Middle Ages, in which
matter was attempted to be converted to
mind. Also, during this time-period, in
1951, Marvin Minsky, one of the founding
fathers of the field of artificial
intelligence, built the first machine
incorporating a neural net, the
stochastic neural analog reinforcement
calculator, SNARC, for short. As you can
see, at this point in the mid-1900s, with
computers becoming more capable every
year, increasing research into abstracting
and human logic and behavior, development
of the first neural net and various
other innovations - the field of modern
computing based artificial intelligence
was being born!
We'll cover the official birth of AI
leading to present-day in the next
video in this AI series, however, that
doesn't mean you have to wait to learn
more! If you want to learn more about
artificial intelligence and neural
networks, and I mean really learn how
they work, from their foundational
building blocks, perceptrons, to more
advanced architectures, then Brilliant.org
is the place for you to go! My primary goal
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and innovations that are changing the
world, but to do so on a higher-level
requires going a step beyond these
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I'll see you again soon!
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